Carpenter Technology’s Custom 465® stainless steel(UNS S) is a premium double vacuum-melted, martensitic, age-hardenable alloy that offers a unique combination of high strength, toughness, and corrosion resistance. When the alloy was first introduced to the aerospace industry in , its developers felt that the alloy’s properties were so exceptional that they would be of value to other industries as well.
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The alloy has greatly exceeded their expectations, finding myriad applications in diverse industries. While the alloy (Fig. 1) continues to meet the special and exacting needs of aerospace manufacturers, it also has found application in marine equipment, firearms, hand tools, oil and gas drilling, and the medical industry among others.
Custom 465 stainless is capable of ultimate tensile strength in excess of 250 ksi ( MPa) when aged at 950°F (H950 condition). This strength is higher than that of any other historically available precipitation-hardenable (PH) stainless steel long product (Fig. 2). Aging temperatures ranging from 950°F to °F can be selected in order to achieve the desired balance of strength, toughness, and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) resistance.
Alloy
Custom 630 (17-4)
15Cr-5Ni Project 70®+
Custom 450®
13Cr-8Ni
Custom 455®
Custom 465®
ConditionH950
H925
H900
H
H950
H950
Yield Strength MPa (ksi)(155)
(179)
(188)
(205)
(225)
(239)
U.T.S., MPa (ksi)(170)
(184)
(196)
(215)
(235)
(254)
Elongation, %15
16
14
13
12
14
Reduction in Area, %50
57
56
55
50
63
Fracture toughness KIC, MPaÖ m (ksiÖ in)110 (100)
95 (86)
78 (71)
127 (115)
77 (70)
98 (89)
Charpy V-notch energy, J (ft-lb)34 (25)
64 (47)
54 (40)
54 (40)
19 (14)
27 (20)
The H950 condition (510ºC) is most commonly used to get higher strength together with good toughness and excellent notch tensile strength. The H condition (538ºC) is chosen to obtain increased toughness at a slightly lower strength level. This condition provides a superior combination of strength, toughness, fabricability, and stress corrosion cracking resistance when compared to other high strength PH stainless alloys such as Custom 455 stainless(UNS S) and 13-8 stainless(UNS S).
Fig. 3 shows the relative strength and toughness of PH stainless steels, while Fig. 4 shows the relationship between yield strength and fracture toughness of commonly used PH stainless steels.
General corrosion resistance of Custom 465 stainless approaches that of 304 stainless. In both the H950 and H conditions, exposure to 5% neutral salt spray at 95ºF (35º C) (per ASTM B117) caused no rusting after over hours. Double-cantilever-beam tests conducted in 3.5% NaCl (pH 6) show Custom 465 stainless to possess inherently good resistance to stress corrosion cracking.
Its stress corrosion resistance, furthermore, improves with increasing aging temperature. It is comparable to that of 13Cr-8Ni stainless and Custom 455 stainless steels, but at significantly higher strength – and its resistance is superior to that of both when overaged to the same strength level. Fig. 5 displays the relative strength, general corrosion resistance, and stress corrosion cracking resistance of traditional PH stainless steels.
In today’s competitive business climate, there is a growing list of manufacturers who are focused on lowest life cycle cost, rather than lowest initial cost. This attitude has created a strong worldwide demand for materials options possessing high strength and toughness, having relative ease of fabrication, and providing reliable, long-term service in corrosive environments. Custom 465 stainless can fill all these needs at once.
The patented alloy has been used as a corrosion resistant upgrade to high strength alloy steels, and as a higher strength upgrade to more conventional stainless steels. Unlike alloy steels, Custom 465 stainless requires no surface coating or metal plating to provide corrosion resistance. It thus eliminates the vulnerability of treated surfaces to cracking and subsequent corrosion attack.
In addition to the expense of coating or plating, the environmental issues related to such coatings and their waste solution disposal are an even larger problem. The European Union, for example, is considering a ban on cadmium plating. Even if Cd plating is not entirely banned, new restrictions and regulations could make the cost of disposing used plating baths prohibitive.
A superior strength-to-weight ratio has driven the success of several new products beyond aerospace. The very high levels of strength that can be achieved provide the part designer with the opportunity to either add strength to an existing design or to reduce its weight or size. Even with such high strength levels, Custom 465’s superior fabricability has been key to the success of critical products that could not be made from alternative high strength materials.
The material is typically shipped from the mill in a solution annealed and cold treated condition. In this condition, Custom 465’s structure is a highly ductile iron-nickel martensite with low yield strength and a relatively low rate of work hardening. As such it can easily be formed or shaped via conventional methods before the simple one-step hardening treatment.
Custom 465 stainless was originally designed to help meet demands from the aerospace industry for materials that could keep aircraft flying for 30 years or more with minimum maintenance. The product development timeline for such applications is, of course, much longer than normal for other types of alloys due to the high level of accountability for all parties. Carpenter Technology and partnering aerospace companies discussed and refined goals, and tested alloy samples for seven years before the alloy was fully accepted and qualified as meeting their requirements. It has since been approved and used for structural components such as flap tracks, slat tracks, actuators, engine mounts, and landing gear hardware. Custom 465 alloy is currently covered by the MMPDS-02, AMS , and ASTM A564 specifications.
Custom 465 stainless can be considered as a corrosion resistant replacement for 300M, AISI , and similar types of steels that must be plated or otherwise surface coated to provide corrosion resistance. It can also be considered as a higher strength replacement for stainless steels such as 15Cr-5Ni, 17Cr-4Ni,and 13-8 stainless steelscurrently in use that have acceptable corrosion resistance, but less-than-desired strength and toughness.
Cold worked Custom 465 stainless, aged at 900ºF (482ºC), can provide maximum achievable tensile strengths approaching 300 ksi ( MPa) for parts with diameters less than 0.75 in. (20 mm). This capability has been useful for making surgical and dental instruments and needle wire for the medical industry. While the more conventional ferritic and martensitic stainless steels sufficed for a long time in making surgical instruments, that landscape has changed.
The evolution of new surgical techniques requires instruments of improved design that do not break, distort, or otherwise fail during surgery. Materials used for the instruments must be strong and tough. The combined high strength and toughness of Custom 465 stainless has allowed instruments to withstand higher operational torque loads during surgery. These properties have facilitated the design of longer and smaller cross-section instruments that are typically required for minimally invasive surgeries.
Superior fracture and impact toughness are also key properties of the alloy when it has been used for surgical tools. At comparable strength levels, Custom 465 has exhibited more than twice the impact resistance of either Custom 455 stainless or 17Cr-4Ni stainless, two alternative precipitation hardenable stainlesses used by the medical industry.
Instruments fabricated from Custom 465 stainless are autoclaveable and resistant to oxidation in a steam environment. The alloy also has been found to be resistant to cleaning and sterilizing solutions and to body fluids and is included in ASTM F899, which is the governing specification for Stainless Steels for Surgical Instruments.
Although not designed specifically for wear and edge retention applications, Custom 465 stainless has been used for instruments, such as scrapers, and cutters with superior results when compared to Custom 455 and 17-4. In addition to the alloy’s use for surgical tools, Custom 465 stainless has served well when used for suture needles due to its combination of high strength, ductility and corrosion resistance.
Drill rigs for oil and gas exploration endure severe costs due to lost production when they have to shut down to repair or replace equipment that has failed. Examples of such critical components are the drive shafts for downhole drilling tools that are commonly used in very harsh environments. Shafts made of EN30B or Astralloy alloy steel, traditional choices for this type of application, would typically last no longer than 150 hours in service before requiring replacement.
NQL Energy Services, a large independent drilling tool supplier in Nisku, Alberta, decided to make the drive shafts on its Black Max line of downhole drilling tools from Custom 465 stainless. As a result, the newly designed shafts and mud motors are lasting up to 1,500 hours before replacement is required, according to NQL. This tenfold increase in service dramatically reduced total replacement costs and the costs associated with lost drill rig production time.
Custom 465 stainlessin the H950 condition provided nearly twice the ultimate tensile strength of the alloy steels replaced, along with excellent notch tensile strength and fracture toughness. It also offered superior resistance to general corrosion and stress corrosion cracking.
When firearms manufacturer, Sturm Ruger & Co., Inc., Southport, CT developed the world’s first six-shot revolver in a .454 Casull caliber – the Ruger® Super Redhawk® – it used Custom 465 stainlessfor the cylinder to withstand the enormous pressure generated when firing this powerful cartridge. Designers started with Ruger's proven, rugged .44 magnum platform, planning to modify it to withstand the approximately 62,000 psi pressure produced by the .454 Casull cartridge.
The highest chamber pressure produced by a typical .44 Magnum cartridge is about 42,000 psi. Since the diameter of the chambers in the cylinder had to increase in order to accommodate the larger .454 cartridge, the cross sections between the chambers were reduced in thickness. So Ruger was faced with a design that required a now thinner wall to withstand an essentially 50% higher pressure than in the original cylinder.
To determine whether a breakthrough six-shot .454 Casull revolver was possible, Ruger fabricated a cylinder from Custom 465 stainless, then fired hundreds of rounds at a proof stress of 92,000 psi, approximately 50% higher than the stress produced under standard .454 firing conditions. After this testing, the chambers exhibited no cracking, scratches, or other signs of fatigue.
The alloy’s full range of properties were required to actualize this superb design – high tensile strength, notch tensile strength, fracture toughness, and corrosion resistance. The clean microstructure produced via premium melting and the inherent good machinability of the iron-nickel martensite matrix provided additional advantages in material savings and manufacture.
Howard Arneson is known for groundbreaking marine racing designs like that of his famous Arneson surface drive propulsion system. He knew he was pushing material limits when he harnessed a hp Lycoming gas turbine, like those used in US Army helicopters, to just one propeller shaft in his newest catamaran racing boat. This is three times the power load that is normally applied to a marine propulsion shaft.
Zeiger Industries of Canton, Ohio was asked to produce the propeller shaft from 17Cr-4Ni PH stainless steel. Zeiger fabricated a finished shaft measuring 40" long by 2½" in the center, tapering down to 1?" at both ends. After careful installation of the shaft, the powerful racer was taken for a test cruise on the Pacific Ocean. Following 50 hours of running time at speeds around 100 mph, the shaft broke off, dropping to the bottom of the sea with its propeller.
A new shaft made from Custom 465 stainlesswas produced and placed into the catamaran. The engine was tested under exceedingly severe loading conditions. The initial test involved accelerating the catamaran to 100 mph in just 12 seconds, which was accomplished successfully. The catamaran was then accelerated to 175 mph, and held for several hours at that speed. For approximately four months, the catamaran was cruised at sustained high speeds, 50 to 100 miles at a time, several times a week without any trace of a problem.
After this extended period of intense service, the propeller was removed and no marks or signs of wear were found even where the propeller engages the spline. This serves to illustrate the advantages of Custom 465 over other PH stainlesses as it matches them in resistance to stress corrosion cracking while providing markedly higher strength.
High-performance hand tools made from Custom 465 stainless offer a unique combination of attributes that have been considered useful to the medical, biomedical, biotech, pharmaceutical, food, nuclear, marine, and other industries concerned with cleanroom sterility and/or exposure to corrosive environments.
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SteriTool™, Div. of Nautitool, Inc., Brooklyn, NY, specializing in stainless steel tools, has used the alloy for a full line of conventional screwdrivers, L- and T-pattern hex keys, and ball-end L-pattern hex keys. These tools are reported to combine high strength, high hardness, high toughness, and the torque capability of the most suitable carbon steels, with superior resistance to both general and stress corrosion cracking. All of the tools are autoclaveable and resistant to surface oxidation in a steam environment.
Despite its highly alloyed content, Custom 465 stainless can be produced, with consistent properties, in most commonly used long forms: flat, square, and round bar; wire; rod; strip, and forged billet up to 16" round. The company is also investigating the manufacture of hot rolled plate, having rolled a number of trial plates. This development could facilitate the fabrication of parts close to stock size and reduce the cost of machining parts.
Stainless steel, also known as inox (an abbreviation of the French term inoxidable, meaning non-oxidizable), corrosion-resistant steel (CRES), or rustless steel, is an iron-based alloy that contains chromium, making it resistant to rust and corrosion. Stainless steel's resistance to corrosion comes from its chromium content of 11% or more, which forms a passive film that protects the material and can self-heal when exposed to oxygen.[1]: 3 It can be further alloyed with elements like molybdenum, carbon, nickel and nitrogen to enhance specific properties for various applications.
The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates, bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals and food products. Some grades are also suitable for forging and casting.
The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and comparable to glass.[2] Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.[3]
Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number.[4] The ISO standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in existing ISO, ASTM, EN, JIS, and GB standards in a useful interchange table.[5]
Although stainless steel does rust, this only affects the outer few layers of atoms, its chromium content shielding deeper layers from oxidation.
The addition of nitrogen also improves resistance to pitting corrosion and increases mechanical strength.[6] Thus, there are numerous grades of stainless steel with varying chromium and molybdenum contents to suit the environment the alloy must endure.[7] Corrosion resistance can be increased further by the following means:
The most common type of stainless steel, 304, has a tensile yield strength around 210 MPa (30,000 psi) in the annealed condition. It can be strengthened by cold working to a strength of 1,050 MPa (153,000 psi) in the full-hard condition.
The strongest commonly available stainless steels are precipitation hardening alloys such as 17-4 PH and Custom 465. These can be heat treated to have tensile yield strengths up to 1,730 MPa (251,000 psi).[8]
The melting point of stainless steel ranges from 1,325 to 1,530 °C (2,417 to 2,786 °F), depending on the alloy, which is near that of ordinary steel, and much higher than aluminium or copper.[9][10]
Like steel, stainless steels are relatively poor conductors of electricity, with significantly lower electrical conductivities than copper. In particular, the electrical contact resistance (ECR) of stainless steel arises as a result of the dense protective oxide layer and limits its functionality in applications as electrical connectors.[11] Copper alloys and nickel-coated connectors tend to exhibit lower ECR values and are preferred materials for such applications. Nevertheless, stainless steel connectors are employed in situations where ECR poses a lower design criteria and corrosion resistance is required, for example in high temperatures and oxidizing environments.[12]
Martensitic, duplex and ferritic stainless steels are magnetic, while austenitic stainless steel is usually non-magnetic.[13] Ferritic steel owes its magnetism to its body-centered cubic crystal structure, in which iron atoms are arranged in cubes (with one iron atom at each corner) and an additional iron atom in the center. This central iron atom is responsible for ferritic steel's magnetic properties.[14] This arrangement also limits the amount of carbon the steel can absorb to around 0.025%.[15] Grades with low coercive field have been developed for electro-valves used in household appliances and for injection systems in internal combustion engines. Some applications require non-magnetic materials, such as magnetic resonance imaging.[16]Austenitic stainless steels, which are usually non-magnetic, can be made slightly magnetic through work hardening. Sometimes, if austenitic steel is bent or cut, magnetism occurs along the edge of the stainless steel because the crystal structure rearranges itself.[17]
Magnetic permeability of some austenitic stainless steel grades after annealing 2 hours at °C[18] EN grade 1. 1. 1. 1. Magnetic permeability, μ 1.056 1.011 1.100 1.000Galling, sometimes called cold welding, is a form of severe adhesive wear, which can occur when two metal surfaces are in relative motion to each other and under heavy pressure. Austenitic stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, though other alloys that self-generate a protective oxide surface film, such as aluminum and titanium, are also susceptible. Under high contact-force sliding, this oxide can be deformed, broken, and removed from parts of the component, exposing the bare reactive metal. When the two surfaces are of the same material, these exposed surfaces can easily fuse. Separation of the two surfaces can result in surface tearing and even complete seizure of metal components or fasteners.[19][20] Galling can be mitigated by the use of dissimilar materials (bronze against stainless steel) or using different stainless steels (martensitic against austenitic). Additionally, threaded joints may be lubricated to provide a film between the two parts and prevent galling. Nitronic 60, made by selective alloying with manganese, silicon, and nitrogen, has demonstrated a reduced tendency to gall.[20]
The density of stainless steel ranges from 7.5 to 8.0 g/cm3 (0.27 to 0.29 lb/cu in) depending on the alloy.
The invention of stainless steel followed a series of scientific developments, starting in when chromium was first shown to the French Academy by Louis Vauquelin. In the early s, British scientists James Stoddart, Michael Faraday, and Robert Mallet observed the resistance of chromium-iron alloys ("chromium steels") to oxidizing agents. Robert Bunsen discovered chromium's resistance to strong acids. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys may have been first recognized in by Pierre Berthier, who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery.[22]
In the s, both Britain's Sheffield steelmakers and then Krupp of Germany were producing chromium steel with the latter employing it for cannons in the s.[23] In , Robert Forester Mushet took out a patent on chromium steel in Britain.[24]
These events led to the first American production of chromium-containing steel by J. Baur of the Chrome Steel Works of Brooklyn for the construction of bridges. A US patent for the product was issued in .[25]: [a] This was followed with recognition of the corrosion resistance of chromium alloys by Englishmen John T. Woods and John Clark, who noted ranges of chromium from 5–30%, with added tungsten and "medium carbon". They pursued the commercial value of the innovation via a British patent for "Weather-Resistant Alloys".[25]: 261, 11 [26][full citation needed]
Scientists researching steel corrosion in the second half of the 19th century didn't pay attention to the amount of carbon in the alloyed steels they were testing until in Adolphe Carnot and E. Goutal noted that chromium steels better resist to oxidation with acids the less carbon they contain.[27][28]
Also in the late s, German chemist Hans Goldschmidt developed an aluminothermic (thermite) process for producing carbon-free chromium.[29] Between and , several researchers, particularly Leon Guillet of France, prepared alloys that would later be considered stainless steel.[29][30]
In , the Essen firm Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft built the 366-ton sailing yacht Germania featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull, in Germany. In , Philip Monnartz reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance.[31] On 17 October , Krupp engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented as Nirosta the austenitic stainless steel[32][33][34][31] that became known as 18/8 or AISI type 304.[35]
Similar developments were taking place in the United States, where Christian Dantsizen of General Electric[35] and Frederick Becket (–) at Union Carbide were industrializing ferritic stainless steel.[36] In , Elwood Haynes applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until .[37]
While seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels in , Harry Brearley of the Brown-Firth research laboratory in Sheffield, England, discovered and subsequently industrialized a martensitic stainless steel alloy, later known as AISI type 420.[35] The discovery was announced two years later in a January newspaper article in The New York Times.[21]
The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by Firth Vickers in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the Savoy Hotel in London in .[38] Brearley applied for a US patent during only to find that Haynes had already registered one. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with a group of investors, formed the American Stainless Steel Corporation, with headquarters in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[25]: 360
Brearley initially called his new alloy "rustless steel". The alloy was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in , one trade journal called it "unstainable steel".[39]
Brearley worked with a local cutlery manufacturer, who gave it the name "stainless steel".[40][41] As late as , Ford Motor Company continued calling the alloy "rustless steel" in automobile promotional materials.[42] However, stainless tended to predominate worldwide, and even in modern Japan, Western cutlery is simply referred to as "stainless (without "steel") spoon/fork" etc. [ステンレス: sutenresu].
In , before the Great Depression, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US annually.[43]
Major technological advances in the s and s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost:
Stainless steel is classified into five different "families" of alloys, each having a distinct set of attributes. Four of the families are defined by their predominant crystalline structure - the austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and duplex alloys. The fifth family, precipitation hardening, is defined by the type of heat treatment used to develop its properties.
Austenitic stainless steel[48][49] is the largest family of stainless steels, making up about two-thirds of all stainless steel production.[50] They have a face-centered cubic crystal structure.[51] This microstructure is achieved by alloying steel with sufficient nickel, manganese, or nitrogen to maintain an austenitic microstructure at all temperatures, ranging from the cryogenic region to the melting point.[51] Thus, austenitic stainless steels are not hardenable by heat treatment since they possess the same microstructure at all temperatures.[51]
Austenitic stainless steels consist of two subfamilies:
Ferritic stainless steels have a body-centered cubic crystal structure, are magnetic, and are hardenable by cold working, but not by heat treating. They contain between 10.5% and 27% chromium with very little or no nickel. Due to the near-absence of nickel, they are less expensive than austenitic stainless steels. Representative alloys include Type 409, Type 429, Type 430, and Type 446. Ferritic stainless steels are present in many products, which include:
Martensitic stainless steels have a body-centered tetragonal crystal structure, are magnetic, and are hardenable by heat treating and by cold working. They offer a wide range of properties and are used as stainless engineering steels, stainless tool steels, and creep-resistant steels. They are not as corrosion-resistant as ferritic and austenitic stainless steels due to their low chromium content. They fall into four categories (with some overlap):[56]
Martensitic stainless steels can be heat treated to provide better mechanical properties. The heat treatment typically involves three steps:[57]
Duplex stainless steels have a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the ideal ratio being a 50:50 mix, though commercial alloys may have ratios of 40:60. They are characterized by higher chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice the yield strength of austenitic stainless steel.[58] Their mixed microstructure provides improved resistance to chloride stress corrosion cracking in comparison to austenitic stainless steel types 304 and 316.[59] Duplex grades are usually divided into three sub-groups based on their corrosion resistance: lean duplex, standard duplex, and super duplex. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. The pulp and paper industry was one of the first to extensively use duplex stainless steel. The oil and gas industry became the largest user and has pushed for more corrosion resistant grades, leading to the development of super duplex and hyper duplex grades. More recently, the less expensive (and slightly less corrosion-resistant) lean duplex has been developed, chiefly for structural applications in building and construction (concrete reinforcing bars, plates for bridges, coastal works) and in the water industry.[citation needed]
Precipitation hardening stainless steels are characterized by the ability to be precipitation hardened to higher strength. There are three types of precipitation hardening stainless steels which are classified according to their crystalline structure:[60]
Several different classification systems have been developed for designating stainless steels. The main system used in the United States has been the SAE steel grades numbering system. The SAE numbering system designates stainless steels by "Type" followed by a three-digit number and sometimes a letter suffix. A newer system that was jointly developed by ASTM and SAE in is The Unified Numbering System for Metals and Alloys (UNS).[62] The Unified Numbering System classifies stainless steels using an alpha-numeric identifier consisting of "S" followed by five digits, although some austenitic stainless steels with high nickel content may fall into the nickel-base designation which uses "N" as the alpha identifer. The UNS designations incorporate previously used designations, whether from the SAE numbering system or proprietary alloy designations. Europe has adopted EN for classification of stainless steels.[35]
Unlike carbon steel, stainless steels do not suffer uniform corrosion when exposed to wet environments. Unprotected carbon steel rusts readily when exposed to a combination of air and moisture. The resulting iron oxide surface layer is porous and fragile. In addition, as iron oxide occupies a larger volume than the original steel, this layer expands and tends to flake and fall away, exposing the underlying steel to further attack. In comparison, stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to undergo passivation, spontaneously forming a microscopically thin inert surface film of chromium oxide by reaction with the oxygen in the air and even the small amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. This passive film prevents further corrosion by blocking oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and thus prevents corrosion from spreading into the bulk of the metal.[63] This film is self-repairing, even when scratched or temporarily disturbed by conditions that exceed the inherent corrosion resistance of that grade.[63][64]
The resistance of this film to corrosion depends upon the chemical composition of the stainless steel, chiefly the chromium content. It is customary to distinguish between four forms of corrosion: uniform, localized (pitting), galvanic, and SCC (stress corrosion cracking). Any of these forms of corrosion can occur when the grade of stainless steel is not suited for the working environment.
Uniform corrosion takes place in very aggressive environments, typically where chemicals are produced or heavily used, such as in the pulp and paper industries. The entire surface of the steel is attacked, and the corrosion is expressed as corrosion rate in mm/year (usually less than 0.1 mm/year is acceptable for such cases). Corrosion tables provide guidelines.[65]
This is typically the case when stainless steels are exposed to acidic or basic solutions. Whether stainless steel corrodes depends on the kind and concentration of acid or base and the solution temperature. Uniform corrosion is typically easy to avoid because of extensive published corrosion data or easily performed laboratory corrosion testing.
Acidic solutions can be put into two general categories: reducing acids, such as hydrochloric acid and dilute sulfuric acid, and oxidizing acids, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid. Increasing chromium and molybdenum content provides increased resistance to reducing acids while increasing chromium and silicon content provides increased resistance to oxidizing acids. Sulfuric acid is one of the most-produced industrial chemicals. At room temperature, type 304 stainless steel is only resistant to 3% acid, while type 316 is resistant to 3% acid up to 50 °C (120 °F) and 20% acid at room temperature. Thus type 304 SS is rarely used in contact with sulfuric acid. Type 904L and Alloy 20 are resistant to sulfuric acid at even higher concentrations above room temperature.[66][67] Concentrated sulfuric acid possesses oxidizing characteristics like nitric acid, and thus silicon-bearing stainless steels are also useful.[68] Hydrochloric acid damages any kind of stainless steel and should be avoided.[1]: 118 [69] All types of stainless steel resist attack from phosphoric acid and nitric acid at room temperature. At high concentrations and elevated temperatures, attack will occur, and higher-alloy stainless steels are required.[70][71][72] In general, organic acids are less corrosive than mineral acids such as hydrochloric and sulfuric acid.
Type 304 and type 316 stainless steels are unaffected by weak bases such as ammonium hydroxide, even in high concentrations and at high temperatures. The same grades exposed to stronger bases such as sodium hydroxide at high concentrations and high temperatures will likely experience some etching and cracking.[73] Increasing chromium and nickel contents provide increased resistance.
All grades resist damage from aldehydes and amines, though in the latter case type 316 is preferable to type 304; cellulose acetate damages type 304 unless the temperature is kept low. Fats and fatty acids only affect type 304 at temperatures above 150 °C (300 °F) and type 316 SS above 260 °C (500 °F), while type 317 SS is unaffected at all temperatures. Type 316L is required for the processing of urea.[1][74]
Localized corrosion can occur in several ways, e.g. pitting corrosion and crevice corrosion. These localized attacks are most common in the presence of chloride ions. Higher chloride levels require more highly alloyed stainless steels.
Localized corrosion can be difficult to predict because it is dependent on many factors, including:
Pitting corrosion is considered the most common form of localized corrosion. The corrosion resistance of stainless steels to pitting corrosion is often expressed by the PREN, obtained through the formula:
where the terms correspond to the proportion of the contents by mass of chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen in the steel. For example, if the steel consisted of 15% chromium %Cr would be equal to 15.
The higher the PREN, the higher the pitting corrosion resistance. Thus, increasing chromium, molybdenum, and nitrogen contents provide better resistance to pitting corrosion.
Though the PREN of certain steel may be theoretically sufficient to resist pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion can still occur when the poor design has created confined areas (overlapping plates, washer-plate interfaces, etc.) or when deposits form on the material. In these select areas, the PREN may not be high enough for the service conditions. Good design, fabrication techniques, alloy selection, proper operating conditions based on the concentration of active compounds present in the solution causing corrosion, pH, etc. can prevent such corrosion.[75]
Stress corrosion cracking (SCC) is caused by combination of tensile stress and a corrosive environment and can lead to unexpected and sudden failure of a stainless steel component. It may occur when three conditions are met:
SCC can be prevented by eliminating one of these three conditions.
The SCC mechanism results from the following sequence of events:
Galvanic corrosion[76] (also called "dissimilar-metal corrosion") refers to corrosion damage induced when two dissimilar materials are coupled in a corrosive electrolyte. The most common electrolyte is water, ranging from freshwater to seawater. When a galvanic couple forms, one of the metals in the couple becomes the anode and corrodes faster than it would alone, while the other becomes the cathode and corrodes slower than it would alone. Stainless steel, due to having a more positive electrode potential than for example carbon steel and aluminium, becomes the cathode, accelerating the corrosion of the anodic metal. An example is the corrosion of aluminium rivets fastening stainless steel sheets in contact with water.[77] The relative surface areas of the anode and the cathode are important in determining the rate of corrosion. In the above example, the surface area of the rivets is small compared to that of the stainless steel sheet, resulting in rapid corrosion.[77] However, if stainless steel fasteners are used to assemble aluminium sheets, galvanic corrosion will be much slower because the galvanic current density on the aluminium surface will be many orders of magnitude smaller.[77] A frequent mistake is to assemble stainless steel plates with carbon steel fasteners; whereas using stainless steel to fasten carbon-steel plates is usually acceptable, the reverse is not. Providing electrical insulation between the dissimilar metals, where possible, is effective at preventing this type of corrosion.[77]
At elevated temperatures, all metals react with hot gases. The most common high-temperature gaseous mixture is air, of which oxygen is the most reactive component. To avoid corrosion in air, carbon steel is limited to approximately 480 °C (900 °F). Oxidation resistance in stainless steels increases with additions of chromium, silicon, and aluminium. Small additions of cerium and yttrium increase the adhesion of the oxide layer on the surface.[78] The addition of chromium remains the most common method to increase high-temperature corrosion resistance in stainless steels; chromium reacts with oxygen to form a chromium oxide scale, which reduces oxygen diffusion into the material. The minimum 10.5% chromium in stainless steels provides resistance to approximately 700 °C (1,300 °F), while 16% chromium provides resistance up to approximately 1,200 °C (2,200 °F). Type 304, the most common grade of stainless steel with 18% chromium, is resistant to approximately 870 °C (1,600 °F). Other gases, such as sulfur dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, carbon monoxide, chlorine, also attack stainless steel. Resistance to other gases is dependent on the type of gas, the temperature, and the alloying content of the stainless steel.[79][80] With the addition of up to 5% aluminium, ferritic grades Fe-Cr-Al are designed for electrical resistance and oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures. Such alloys include Kanthal, produced in the form of wire or ribbons.[81]
Standard mill finishes can be applied to flat rolled stainless steel directly by the rollers and by mechanical abrasives. Steel is first rolled to size and thickness and then annealed to change the properties of the final material. Any oxidation that forms on the surface (mill scale) is removed by pickling, and a passivation layer is created on the surface. A final finish can then be applied to achieve the desired aesthetic appearance.[82][83]
The following designations are used in the U.S. to describe stainless steel finishes by ASTM A480/A480M-18 (DIN):[84]
A wide range of joining processes are available for stainless steels, though welding is by far the most common.[85][86]
The ease of welding largely depends on the type of stainless steel used. Austenitic stainless steels are the easiest to weld by electric arc, with weld properties similar to those of the base metal (not cold-worked). Martensitic stainless steels can also be welded by electric-arc but, as the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the fusion zone (FZ) form martensite upon cooling, precautions must be taken to avoid cracking of the weld. Improper welding practices can additionally cause sugaring (oxide scaling) and heat tint on the backside of the weld. This can be prevented with the use of back-purging gases, backing plates, and fluxes.[87] Post-weld heat treatment is almost always required while preheating before welding is also necessary in some cases.[86] Electric arc welding of type 430 ferritic stainless steel results in grain growth in the HAZ, which leads to brittleness. This has largely been overcome with stabilized ferritic grades, where niobium, titanium, and zirconium form precipitates that prevent grain growth.[88][89] Duplex stainless steel welding by electric arc is a common practice but requires careful control of the process parameters. Otherwise, the precipitation of unwanted intermetallic phases occurs, which reduces the toughness of the welds.[90]
Electric arc welding processes include:[85]
MIG, MAG and TIG welding are the most common methods.
Other welding processes include:
Stainless steel may be bonded with adhesives such as silicone, silyl modified polymers, and epoxies. Acrylic and polyurethane adhesives are also used in some situations.[91]
Most of the world's stainless steel production is produced by the following processes:
World stainless steel production figures are published yearly by the International Stainless Steel Forum. Of the EU production figures, Italy, Belgium, and Spain were notable, while Canada and Mexico produced none. China, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, India, the US, and Indonesia were large producers while Russia reported little production.[50]
World stainless steel production in flat and long products (metric tons, '000s) Year European Union Americas China Asia excluding China Other countries World 32632 58289 30139 50892 29400 52218 26706 50729 25774 48081 24938 672 45778 21562 609 41548 21692 595 41686 18984 644 38506Breakdown of production by stainless steels families in :
Stainless steel is used in a multitude of fields including architecture, art, chemical engineering, food and beverage manufacture, vehicles, medicine, energy and firearms.
Life cycle cost (LCC) calculations are used to select the design and the materials that will lead to the lowest cost over the whole life of a project, such as a building or a bridge.[92][93]
The formula, in a simple form, is the following:[94][95][verification needed]
where LCC is the overall life cycle cost, AC is the acquisition cost, IC the installation cost, OC the operating and maintenance costs, LP the cost of lost production due to downtime, and RC the replacement materials cost.
In addition, N is the planned life of the project, i the interest rate, and n the year in which a particular OC or LP or RC is taking place. The interest rate (i) is used to convert expenses from different years to their present value (a method widely used by banks and insurance companies) so they can be added and compared fairly. The usage of the sum formula ( ∑ {\textstyle \sum } ) captures the fact that expenses over the lifetime of a project must be cumulated (added together) after they are corrected for interest rate.[96]
Application of LCC in materials selection
Stainless steel used in projects often results in lower LCC values compared to other materials. The higher acquisition cost (AC) of stainless steel components are often offset by improvements in operating and maintenance costs, reduced loss of production (LP) costs, and the higher resale value of stainless steel components.[97]
LCC calculations are usually limited to the project itself. However, there may be other costs that a project stakeholder may wish to consider:[citation needed]
The average carbon footprint of stainless steel (all grades, all countries) is estimated to be 2.90 kg of CO2 per kg of stainless steel produced,[98] of which 1.92 kg are emissions from raw materials (Cr, Ni, Mo); 0.54 kg from electricity and steam, and 0.44 kg are direct emissions (i.e., by the stainless steel plant). Note that stainless steel produced in countries that use cleaner sources of electricity (such as France, which uses nuclear energy) will have a lower carbon footprint. Ferritics without Ni will have a lower CO2 footprint than austenitics with 8% Ni or more. Carbon footprint must not be the only sustainability-related factor for deciding the choice of materials:
Stainless steel is 100% recyclable.[99][100] An average stainless steel object is composed of about 60% recycled material of which approximately 40% originates from end-of-life products, while the remaining 60% comes from manufacturing processes.[101] What prevents a higher recycling content is the availability of stainless steel scrap, in spite of a very high recycling rate. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the per capita stock of stainless steel in use in society is 80 to 180 kg (180 to 400 lb) in more developed countries and 15 kg (33 lb) in less-developed countries. There is a secondary market that recycles usable scrap for many stainless steel markets. The product is mostly coil, sheet, and blanks. This material is purchased at a less-than-prime price and sold to commercial quality stampers and sheet metal houses. The material may have scratches, pits, and dents but is made to the current specifications.[citation needed]
The stainless steel cycle starts with carbon steel scrap, primary metals, and slag. The next step is the production of hot-rolled and cold-finished steel products in steel mills. Some scrap is produced, which is directly reused in the melting shop. The manufacturing of components is the third step. Some scrap is produced and enters the recycling loop. Assembly of final goods and their use does not generate any material loss. The fourth step is the collection of stainless steel for recycling at the end of life of the goods (such as kitchenware, pulp and paper plants, or automotive parts). This is where it is most difficult to get stainless steel to enter the recycling loop, as shown in the table below:
Estimates of collection for recycling by sector[102] End-use sector Results Use, global average Estimates Average lifetimeStainless steel nanoparticles have been produced in the laboratory.[103][104] These may have applications as additives for high-performance applications. For example, sulfurization, phosphorization, and nitridation treatments to produce nanoscale stainless steel based catalysts could enhance the electrocatalytic performance of stainless steel for water splitting.[105]
There is extensive research indicating some probable increased risk of cancer (particularly lung cancer) from inhaling fumes while welding stainless steel.[106][107][108][109][110][111] Stainless steel welding is suspected of producing carcinogenic fumes from cadmium oxides, nickel, and chromium.[112] According to Cancer Council Australia, "In , all types of welding fumes were classified as a Group 1 carcinogen."[112]
Stainless steel is generally considered to be biologically inert. However, during cooking, small amounts of nickel and chromium leach out of new stainless steel cookware into highly acidic food.[113] Nickel can contribute to cancer risks—particularly lung cancer and nasal cancer.[114][115] However, no connection between stainless steel cookware and cancer has been established.[116]
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